My Experience about Structure Lesson

My Experience about Structure Lesson




A language lesson should include a variety of activities that combine different types of language input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels benefit from such variety; research has shown that it is more motivating and is more likely to result in effective language learning.




Base on Mr. Rivi Antony and Mr. Jhonry System, I got some planning about how to teaching structure lesson more effective.




It has five parts:




* Preparation

* Presentation

* Practice

* Evaluation

* Expansion




The five parts of a lesson may all take place in one class session or may extend over multiple sessions, depending on the nature of the topic and the activities.

The lesson plan should outline who will do what in each part of the lesson. The time allotted for preparation, presentation, and evaluation activities should be no more than 8-10 minutes each. Communication practice activities may run a little longer.




1. Preparation

As the class begins, give students a broad outline of the day's goals and activities so they know what to expect. Help them focus by eliciting their existing knowledge of the day's topics.

Use discussion or homework review to elicit knowledge related to the grammar and language use points to be covered. Use comparison with the native language to elicit strategies that students may already be using Use discussion of what students do and/or like to do to elicit their knowledge of the topic they will address in communication activities





2. Presentation/Modeling

Move from preparation into presentation of the linguistic and topical content of the lesson and relevant learning strategies. Present the strategy first if it will help students absorb the lesson content.

Presentation provides the language input that gives students the foundation for their knowledge of the language. Input comes from the instructor and from course textbooks. To increase the amount of input that students receive in the target language, instructors should use it as much as possible for all classroom communication purposes.

An important part of the presentation is structured output, in which students practice the form that the instructor has presented. In structured output, accuracy of performance is important. Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced.

Structured output is a type of communication that is found only in language classrooms. Because production is limited to preselected items, structured output is not truly communicative.




3. Practice

In this part of the lesson, the focus shifts from the instructor as presenter to the students as completers of a designated task. Students work in pairs or small groups on a topic-based task with a specific outcome. Completion of the task may require the bridging of an information gap. The instructor observes the groups an acts as a resource when students have questions that they cannot resolve themselves.

In their work together, students move from structured output to communicative output, in which the main purpose is to complete the communication task. Language becomes a tool, rather than an end in itself. Learners have to use any or all of the language that they know along with varied communication strategies. The criterion of success is whether the learner gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message.

Activities for the practice segment of the lesson may come from a textbook or be designed by the instructor. See Identify Materials and Activities for guidelines on developing tasks that use authentic materials and activities.

4. Evaluation

When all students have completed the communication practice task, reconvene the class as a group to recap the lesson. Ask students to give examples of how they used the linguistic content and learning or communication strategies to carry out the communication task.

Evaluation is useful for four reasons:

* It reinforces the material that was presented earlier in the lesson

* It provides an opportunity for students to raise questions of usage and style

* It enables the instructor to monitor individual student comprehension and learning

* It provides closure to the lesson





5. Expansion

Expansion activities allow students to apply the knowledge they have gained in the classroom to situations outside it. Expansion activities include out-of-class observation assignments, in which the instructor asks students to find examples of something or to use a strategy and then report back.




Written by Vebyo Arson | Uin Suska08 | PBI | II F

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Why We Need Reading

Reading habit benefits our life in many ways. The regular reading habits benefit us in several ways like such habit strengthen us mentally, spiritually and socially. Our habits of regular reading make us more confident and improve our knowledge to a large extent. The first thing that a child learns in school is reading. Let's further observe some more benefits of reading:





Reading has various benefits:




Vast Vocabulary Booster:-




Regular reading habit enhances our vocabulary. While reading we go through different words, some of them are many times new to us. Thus, by getting familiar with more and more words help in increasing our knowledge and make us more self-assured.




Relieve Stress: -




Our habit of reading relieves us from stress and in addition it also makes us feel fresh. It works as a relieving pill for our tired mind. Regular reading strengthens our reading muscles and keeps the mind fresh.




Learning and Knowledge:-




There is no better opportunity for learning than through reading. Almost every human being, great or average has gained most of the knowledge through reading, in comparison to any other means. Routine reading expands our mind tremendously. A great benefit of reading is that we came to know about the history of the great people who had lived before our birth.




Sharp and Fresh Mind:-




The other main benefits of reading include making you intelligent; sharpen your mind and making you feel more confident. It is because of reading that the person feels complete. It is because of reading that the mind remains cool and that help us in staying fresh during the course of day.




Good Ideal for Kids:-




Reading sets a nice example for younger generations. You can communicate the message to them more properly by your reading habit than anything you could say. You can't show them how much you value reading, if you do not read yourself. A regular habit of reading can keep your mind occupied and full of life, even during your old age.

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How to Get Reading Easily

To make reading become easily for us,we need to know the strategy.There are various strategies or ways to get reading easily .




Easier - There are different styles of reading for different situations. The technique you choose will depend on the purpose for reading. For example, you might be reading for enjoyment, information, or to complete a task. If you are exploring or reviewing, you might skim a document. If you're searching for information, you might scan for a particular word. To get detailed information, you might use a technique such as SQ4R . You need to adjust your reading speed and technique depending on your purpose.





Many people consider skimming and scanning search techniques rather than reading strategies. However when reading large volumes of information, they may be more practical than reading. For example, you might be searching for specific information, looking for clues, or reviewing information.

Harder - Web pages, novels, textbooks, manuals, magazines, newspapers, and mail are just a few of the things that people read every day. Effective and efficient readers learn to use many styles of reading for different purposes. Skimming, scanning, and critical reading are different styles of reading and information processing.





Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research.





There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.





Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it.




When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.





Reading off a computer screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have more difficulty reading off a computer screen than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend at the same rate as paper, skimming on the computer is much slower than on paper.





The SQ3R

Reading Method

























Before you read, S urvey the chapter:	the title, headings, and subheadings captions under pictures, charts, graphs or maps review questions or teacher-made study guides introductory and concluding paragraphs summary
Q uestion while you are surveying:	Turn the title, headings, and/or subheadings into questions; Read questions at the end of the chapters or after each subheading; Ask yourself, "What did my instructor say about this chapter or subject when it was assigned?" Ask yourself, "What do I already know about this subject?" Note: If it is helpful to you, write out these questions for consideration. This variation is called SQW3R
When you begin to R ead:	Look for answers to the questions you first raised; Answer questions at the beginning or end of chapters or study guides Reread captions under pictures, graphs, etc. Note all the underlined, italicized, bold printed words or phrases Study graphic aids Reduce your speed for difficult passages Stop and reread parts which are not clear Read only a section at a time and recite after each section
R ecite after you've read a section:	Orally ask yourself questions about what you have just read or summarize, in your own words, what you read Take notes from the text but write the information in your own words Underline or highlight important points you've just read Use the method of recitation which best suits your particular learning style but remember, the more senses you use the more likely you are to remember what you read - i.e., TRIPLE STRENGTH LEARNING: Seeing, saying, hearing- QUADRUPLE STRENGTH LEARNING: Seeing , saying , hearing, writing!!!
R eview: an ongoing process.	Day One After you have read and recited the entire chapter, write questions in the margins for those points you have highlighted or underlined. If you took notes while reciting, write questions for the notes you have taken in the left hand margins of your notebook. Day Two Page through the text and/or your notebook to re-acquaint yourself with the important points. Cover the right hand column of your text/note-book and orally ask yourself the questions in the left hand margins. Orally recite or write the answers from memory. Make "flash cards" for those questions which give you difficulty. Develop mnemonic devices for material which need to be memorized. Days Three, Four and Five Alternate between your flash cards and notes and test yourself (orally or in writing) on the questions you formulated. Make additional flash cards if necessary. Weekend Using the text and notebook, make a Table of Contents - list all the topics and sub-topics you need to know from the chapter. From the Table of Contents, make a Study Sheet/ Spatial Map. Recite the information orally and in your own words as you put the Study Sheet/Map together. Now that you have consolidated all the information you need for that chapter, periodically review the Sheet/Map so that at test time you will not have to cram.







PAR Reading Strategies








PAR Reading Strategies















P repare	Assist	R eflect
Get your brain ready! ? What do I already know? ? Does this remind me of something? ? What questions do I have? ? What do I predict is going to happen? ? What can I preview before I read? (Titles, pictures, graphs, etc.)	What can I do to HELP me understand and remember what I read? ? Re-read ? Use strategies to solve hard words. ? Keep notes. ? Picture it in your mind. ? Re-predict ? Don't accept nonsense. ? Stop every so often and check your understanding (mini summary). ? Read between the lines. ? Search for connections - text to text - text to self - text to world ? Ask yourself questions. ? ?Ask someone else if all other strategies have failed.	What have I learned, how do I feel, and what do I understand after reading? (Final review and evaluation) ? Talk about it with someone else. ? Write or give a response on your opinions and feelings. ? Write or give a summary. ? Re-visit your original questions and see if you found the answers you were looking for. ? Go back to your first predictions and see if you were on the right track or not. ? Come up with more questions.

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Why reading is important

Why do you read? What are all of the reasons that reading is important to you as a teacher and as a person? What advantages have you gained in life because of your ability to read fluently and to understand a variety of different text structures? Where would you be without reading? Perhaps your answers to these questions are much like mine. I read because I enjoy it. Like most voracious readers, I live vicariously through the stories that I pick up. My mind is energized and challenged by the universal themes present in literature.





Reading has also opened many doors for me. College was a breeze because the difficult text presented was easily understood. I've advanced in my career due to my public speaking and writing abilities. Those skills come naturally to anyone having spent half their waking hours in a book, immersed in wonderful language.




To be sure, the reasons for reading are numerous. You can probably detail them as well as I can—but are they apparent to your students? Can the children of your classes answer any of my questions, or do they read simply out of obligation? Is filling out weekly reading logs something more than a task to them? Do they itch to complete book reviews and to participate in literature circles, or are they going through the motions, satisfying the requirements of your class?




Reading is as essential to your students as it has been for you, but few of them know why. Many have lost (or never had to begin with) the joy that good books can provide, and they do not understand how great a loss that is. What's more, the majority of the adults in their lives have never fully explained the benefits of reading. It is as if the importance of reading is a secret revealed only to those who discover it alone.




If reading is going to be reinvented as a worthwhile pursuit in your classroom, this secrecy has to end! It is your job as a teacher to help your children recognize the role that reading plays in their life, and Kelly Gallagher's book Reading Reason s can help you to do that. Gallagher, a long-time high school English teacher in California , realized one day that few of his students could fully explain the role that reading plays in their lives. Together, he and his students began to outline specific reasons that reading matters. What they came up with was the following list of nine Reading Reasons :




1. Reading is rewarding.

2. Reading builds a mature vocabulary.

3. Reading makes you a better writer.

4. Reading is hard, and "hard" is necessary.

5. Reading makes you smarter.

6. Reading prepares you for the world of work.

7. Reading well is financially rewarding.

8. Reading opens the door to college and beyond.

9. Reading arms you against oppression.




Gallagher then took these ideas and created 40 motivational mini-lessons designed to convince middle and high school students of the importance of reading in their lives. Those mini-lessons have become the core of Reading Reasons .Each lesson is designed to take between 5 and 20 minutes to teach. They share convincing information about each reading reason and can be implemented in classrooms across the curriculum. Complete with specific directions and all related materials, these reading "booster shots" (as Gallagher describes them) are approachable and easy to use.



Reading Reasons also includes a collection of valuable documents in its appendix. Lists of books appropriate for middle and high school students, samples of letters that can be sent to parents, and reading records that Gallagher has used in his career are all provided for teachers interested in making reading a central part of their classrooms. In the end, no matter what we teach, each of us wants to instill an appreciation for reading in our students. Reading Reasons helps to make that possible. It is an essential resource that teachers of middle and high school children will find immediately rewarding!







Other reasons why reading is important




I. In today world we receive so much information via radio, television and multimedia experiences yet none of these avenues has the ability to educate as the fundamental skill of reading.




When examining how well a nation is doing and how likely its economic situation is improve so often the literacy rate is included. Often this figure is a reflection not only of educational levels but has a follow on effect of economic power, government administration, corruption and health. When this figure is low the country is more likely to be an economic backwater, government is likely to be poor or a dictatorship, corruption widespread and a lack of universities, doctors and other experts. When one looks at countries in the African continent often the literacy rate is a good reflection of quality of lifestyle.




Countries that have recently experience improving economic fortunes have increased their populations education level.The easiest way to educate any problem is to teach them the skill of reading. If you can read you have open to you a world of knowledge. It was true in Abraham Lincoln's day when he said he taught himself through reading as did many other early American pioneers. Although they were often in difficult situations their ability to read meant they could educate themselves to overcome problems.




Even in this day of multimedia reading is still the most essential skill to acquire knowledge. The internet has meant that information is freely available to anyone who can log on. However to absorb, teach and learn that information and apply reading is required. With the advent of websites and books reading has continued to increase in importance.




II. It is a well-known fact that when there were no televisions or computers, reading was a primary leisure activity. People would spend hours reading books and travel to lands far away-in their minds. The only tragedy is that, with time, people have lost their skill and passion to read. There are many other exciting and thrilling options available, aside from books. And that is a shame because reading offers a productive approach to improving vocabulary and word power. It is advisable to indulge in at least half an hour of reading a day to keep abreast of the various styles of writing and new vocabulary.




It is observed that children and teenagers who love reading have comparatively higher IQs. They are more creative and do better in school and college. It is recommended that parents to inculcate the importance of reading to their children in the early years. Reading is said to significantly help in developing vocabulary, and reading aloud helps to build a strong emotional bond between parents and children. The children who start reading from an early age are observed to have good language skills, and they grasp the variances in phonics much better.




Reading helps in mental development and is known to stimulate the muscles of the eyes. Reading is an activity that involves greater levels of concentration and adds to the conversational skills of the reader. It is an indulgence that enhances the knowledge acquired, consistently. The habit of reading also helps readers to decipher new words and phrases that they come across in everyday conversations. The habit can become a healthy addiction and adds to the information available on various topics. It helps us to stay in-touch with contemporary writers as well as those from the days of yore and makes us sensitive to global issues.

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Theory and Reasearch

Language Learning Strategies: Theory and Research




Abstract




What is considered by many to be the pioneering work in the field of language learning strategies was carried out in the mid seventies by researchers such as Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975). Although nearly a quarter of a century has passed since then, the language learning strategy field continues to be characterised by “no consensus” (O'Malley et al, 1985, p.22) and the concept of language learning strategies itself remains “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1994, p.529). This article attempts to clarify some of the fuzziness by trying first of all to establish basic terminology and going on to discuss definition and classification of language learning strategies. The development of language learning strategy theory and how it fits into the framework of contemporary language teaching and learning for students who speak other languages is examined, and research on language learning strategies to date is reviewed.






Introduction

As Wenden (1985) reminds us, there is an old proverb which states: “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day. Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”. Applied to the language teaching and learning field, this proverb might be interpreted to mean that if students are provided with answers, the immediate problem is solved. But if they are taught the strategies to work out the answers for themselves, they are empowered to manage their own learning. Since the pioneering work carried out in the mid-seventies (for instance by Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975) there has been an awareness that language learning strategies have the potential to be “an extremely powerful learning tool” (O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, and Russo, 1985, p.43 ). In spite of this awareness, and in spite of much useful and interesting work having been carried out in the intervening years (nearly a quarter of a century), the language learning strategy field continues to be characterised by “confusion” and “no consensus” (O'Malley et al, 1985, p.22) while Ellis (1994, p.529) comments that the language learning strategy concept remains “fuzzy”. Considering the potential usefulness of language learning strategies as a language teaching and learning tool, I would like to try to put this rather fuzzy picture in to some sort of perspective. I will begin by looking at the basic terminology, the frequently conflicting use of which does nothing to aid consensus. I will then discuss definition and classification of language learning strategies, and go on from there to look at language learning strategies from a theoretical perspective before reviewing language learning strategy research to date.





Terminology

Before attempting to define and classify language learning strategies as used by speakers of other languages, I would like first of all to provide a rationale for the choice of the term strategy. Although used by many prominent writers (such as Rubin, 1975; O'Malley et al, 1985; Oxford , 1990) the term strategy is not without its controversy. Consensus is not assisted by some writers' use of conflicting terminology such as learning behaviours (Wesche, 1977; Politzer and McGroarty, 1985), tactics (Seliger, 1984) and techniques (Stern, 1992) more or less (but not always exactly) synonymously with the term strategy. Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991, p.199) opt for the term strategy since, as they point out, Rubin (1975) used it “in perhaps the earliest study in this area and it enjoys the widest currency today”. For this reason, strategy is the term which will be used for the purposes of the present work.




Definition and Classification

Since the work done by researchers such as Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) in the midseventies, awareness has been slowly growing of the importance of the strategies used by learners in the language learning process, since ultimately, like the proverbial horse led to water but which must do the drinking itself, even with the best teachers and methods, students are the only ones who can actually do the learning. As Nyikos and Oxford (1993, p.11) put it: “learning begins with the learner”. This growing awareness has resulted in more recent years in what Skehan (1989, p.285) calls an “explosion of activity” in the field of language learning strategy research. In spite of this activity, however, defining and classifying language learning strategies remains no easy task. Wenden and Rubin (1987, p.7) talk of “the elusive nature of the term”, Ellis (1994, p.529) describes the concept as “fuzzy”, while O'Malley et al (1985, p.22) put it this way: There is no consensus on what constitutes a learning strategy in second language learning or how these differ from other types of learner activities. Learning, teaching and communication strategies are often interlaced in discussions of language learning and are often applied to the same behaviour. Further, even within the group of activities most often referred to as learning strategies, there is considerable confusion about definitions of specific strategies and about the hierarchic relationship among strategies. One of the earliest researchers in this field, Rubin (1975, p.43) provided a very broad definition of learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”. In 1981 (pp.124-126) she identified two kinds of learning strategies: those which contribute directly to learning, and those which contribute indirectly to learning. The direct learning strategies she divided into six types (clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice), and the indirect learning strategies she divided into two types (creating opportunities for practice, production tricks). Under production tricks, Rubin included communication strategies. This is a controversial inclusion since learning strategies and communication strategies are seen by some as two quite separate manifestations of language learner behaviour. Brown (1980, p.87), for instance, draws a clear distinction between learning strategies and communication strategies on the grounds that “communication is the output modality and learning is the input modality”. Brown suggests that, while a learner generally applies the same fundamental strategies (such as rule transference) used in learning a language to communicating in that language, there are other communication strategies such as avoidance or message abandonment which do not result in learning. Brown (1994, p.118) concedes, however, that “in the arena of linguistic interaction, it is sometimes difficult.....to distinguish between the two”. Ellis (1986) is another who views strategies for learning and strategies for using, including communication strategies or “devices for compensating for inadequate resources” (p.165), as quite different manifestations of a more general phenomenon which he calls learner strategies. He argues that it is even possible that successful use of communication strategies may actually prevent language learning since skilful compensation for lack of linguistic knowledge may obviate the need for learning. Tarone (1980) takes a different point of view. She suggests that by helping students to say what they want or need to say, communication strategies can help to expand language. Even if the communication is not perfect in grammatical or lexical terms, in the process of using the language for communication the learner will be exposed to language input which may result in learning and which therefore may be considered a learning strategy. The key point in this argument would seem to be that in order to be considered a learning strategy rather than a communication strategy, the “basic motivation is not to communicate but to learn” (Tarone, 1980, p.419). The problems with differentiating between communication strategies and learning strategies on the grounds of motivation or intention, however, as Tarone (1981) acknowledges, are that we have, in practice, no way of determining what motivates a learner, that learners may have a dual motivation to both learn and communicate, or that learners may learn language even when the basic motivation was to communicate. As Tarone (1981,p.290) aptly comments, “the relationship of learning strategies to communication strategies is somewhat problematic”.




Research into Language Learning Strategies

One of the difficulties with researching language learning strategies is that they cannot usually be observed directly; they can only be inferred from language learner behaviour. As Ellis (1986, p.14) rather colourfully puts it: “It is a bit like trying to work out the classification system of a library when the only evidence to go on consists of the few books you have been allowed to take out”. Given the difficulties of such a task, the challenge has been to devise a means first of all to record and subsequently to interpret the phenomena involved, a process which Ellis (1986, p.188) likens to “stumbling blindfold round a room to find a hidden object”. Over the years, different researchers have employed a variety of approaches to this rather daunting task, one of the most frequently used of which has been the gathering of data about good language learners and about what it is that they do that makes them more successful than slower language learners.

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Subordinators and Coordinators

Definition Subordinators and Coordinators




Joining words show a relationship in meaning between ideas. There are three grammatical families of joining words; each has its own punctuation guidelines.

































Families	Popular words	Punctuation	Example
Coordinators	for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (complete list – you can remember these with the acronym FANBOYS)	Anything	I ate, for I was hungry. He seemed strange. Yet I liked him. You shouldn't – but you will. Frank fainted; so I drove the car.
Subordinators	because, since, although, whereas, while, unless, until, if, when, after etc. (not a complete list)	at most a , (NOT ; or .)	Because he was dirty , I washed him. Bob ran until he couldn't breathe.
Transitional Expressions	therefore, instead, thus, on the other hand, indeed, however, as a result etc. (not a complete list)	at least a ; or . (NOT a ,)	You're tall; therefore, you rule. The book is weird. In fact, it's bad.







Why bother?





• Use joining words to make papers less wordy . Don't use two sentences when one will do!

Examples:

This is a good novel. The reason why I say it is a good novel is because it is funny and well-written.

Revise: This is a good novel because it is funny and well-written.

The novel addresses things that concern all of us. So as a result of this, we should all read it.

Revise: The novel addresses things that concern all of us; therefore, we should all read it.





• Use joining words to clarify ideas. Joining words can create subtle differences of meaning. This is especially important with subordination.






The difference between subordinators and coordinators / transition words




Coordinators and transition words don't emphasize one idea over another. I like cheese, but I can't eat it. Fido ran off, so I decided to look around for another dog. Marriage is a thorny issue; however, that's no reason to lose one's temper about it. Subordinators emphasize one idea over the other – or, to put it another way, they subordinate one idea to another. The lesser idea is subordinated:




• Because you are sick, we will get a doctor. (The cause is subordinated to the effect.)
• If you like cheese, I'll buy some. (The condition is subordinated to the outcome.)
• When Frank gets home, I'll talk to him. (The time is subordinated to the activity.)




Contrast and Concession




Because subordinators elevate one idea over another, you can use these to present contrasts, and to show focus on one idea or another without a lot of fuss.




Although your work has improved a good deal, …

[Are you bracing for good or bad news? Bad news!]

… your papers still aren't passing.




Although you haven't really made much effort, ….

[Here, you're bracing for good news, aren't you?]

… you've done easily enough to get a passing grade.





Although I can't afford the tickets, I really want to go to the World Series this year.

Although I really want to go to the World Series this year, I can't afford the tickets.

(Which speaker is more likely to go to the Series?)




While children are always valued, they are not always protected.

(This paragraph will focus not on the way children are valued, but their lack of protection.)




While children are often unprotected, they are always valued.

(This paragraph supports the opposite view.)





In all of these cases, the writer puts two contrasting ideas together, but clearly emphasizes one of them. This is extremely useful for organizing comparison/contrast papers. The following sentences introduce paragraphs by putting them in a comparative context:





Whereas the turkey is a comic creature, the eagle is a majestic and solemn bird .

While education in the U.S. tends to emphasize individuality, other educational systems focus on the transmission of culture.

Good comparison/contrast words: although, whereas, while, though.





Equally, subordinators are useful to make concessions. This permits the writer to acknowledge the truth of an opposing point, while stressing the importance of its opposite. This is very useful for arguments, where you need to refer to different points of view without confusing the reader as to what you yourself believe.





Although guns do help to prevent crimes, they can also help to make crimes more fatal .

Even though many people do claim to benefit from holistic medicine, there is no evidence that homeopathic or other remedies are any use whatsoever.

Good concession words: although, though, even though.




Using subordinators (especially concessives) to clarify ideas

Joining sentences with a well-chosen word helps you explain yourself more clearly.

In a world where everyone carried a handgun, homicides would probably increase. It is true that unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals. But we all want a lower crime rate.

(What is this speaker's main position: for or against carrying handguns?)

REVISION: Although it is true that unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals, in a world where everyone carried a handgun, homicides would probably increase. We all want a lower crime rate.




Unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals. It is true that in a world where everyone carried a handgun, homicides would probably increase. But people need to defend themselves.

(What is this speaker's main position, do you think?)

REVISION: Although homicides would probably increase in a world where everyone carried a handgun, unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals. People need to defend themselves.







Another explanation




SUBORDINATORS

These words combine clauses to create complex sentences.

See the comma rule page .

Time: when, while, since, before, after, until, once

Place: where, wherever

Cause: because, since, as, now that, inasmuch as

Condition: if, unless, on condition that

Contrast/Concession: although, even though, despite, in spite of

Adversative: while, where, whereas

Other: that, which, who, whoever, whom, what, why, how....




Note: These words introduce clauses, not complete sentences. Thus, when you use these words, you need to make sure to use these words in subordinate clauses that are connected to main clauses with a comma .








Examples: When you use subordinators, you must connect the clause containing the subordinator to a clause without a subordinator. Although punctuation may seem trivial, not using punctuation correctly makes your sentences difficult to read.




If the subordinate clause appears at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma to connect the clauses. Subordinate clauses are not connected with a comma when the subordinate clause is at the end of the sentence.




So, we have these rules:






1. [ Subordinator ] + Subject + Verb , Subject + Verb. (comma)


2. Subject + Verb [ Subordinator ] + Subject Verb. (no comma)






You can delete some subordinators and still have a complex sentence.

The man (whom) you saw robbed a bank. The comma (that) I added was not necessary.

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Subordinators and the Usage

The definition of subordinator




Subordinator is a kind of connector that join a dependent clause to an independent clause. Examples of subordinators are before, when, if, because and although . They are used before the dependent clause. They can be used in two positions:




1) The subordinator and dependent clause can come before the independent clause with a comma.




When the bell rang, the students ran to the sky-train station .




2) The subordinator and dependent clause can come after the independent clause with no comma.




The students ran to the sky-train station when the bell rang.




So, we have these rules:






1. [ Subordinator ] + Subject + Verb , Subject + Verb. (comma)


2. Subject + Verb [ Subordinator ] + Subject Verb. (no comma)






You can delete some subordinators and still have a complex sentence such as :

The man (whom) you saw robbed a bank. The comma (that) I added was not necessary.




The reasons why we use subordinator are :




• Use subordinators to make papers less wordy . Don't use two sentences when one will do!




Example:




This is a good novel. The reason why I say it is a good novel is because it is funny and well-written.




Revision : This is a good novel because it is funny and well-written.







• Use subordinator to clarify ideas . Joining words can create subtle differences of meaning. This is especially important with subordination.




Examples:




In a world where everyone carried a handgun, homicides would probably increase. It is true that unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals. But we all want a lower crime rate.




REVISION: Although it is true that unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals, in a world where everyone carried a handgun, homicides would probably increase. We all want a lower crime rate.




Unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals. It is true that in a world where everyone carried a handgun, homicides would probably increase. But people need to defend themselves.




REVISION: Although homicides would probably increase in a world where everyone carried a handgun, unarmed people are at the mercy of criminals. People need to defend themselves.







Kind of subordinators







Time: when, while, since, before, after, until, once.

Place: where, wherever.

Cause: because, since, as, now that, inasmuch as.

Condition: if, unless, on condition that.

Contrast/Concession: although, even though, despite, in spite of.

Adversative: while, where, whereas

Other: that, which, who, whoever, whom, what, why, how....







The Usage of Subordinators





• To Show a Difference



The subordinators are: while, whereas, and though.

Example:

While most students hate lab assignments, Anita enjoys them.




• To Show the Opposite of What You Might Expect



The subordinators are: although, even though, though.

Example:

Even though Clara Nett works hard, she still isn't getting good grades




• To Show a Similarity



The subordinators are: just as, as.

Example:

Peter loves political science just as Rhonda loves English Literature.




• To Show a Cause or Reason



The subordinators are: because, since, as long as

Example:

She decided to take Psychology because she was curious about human behaviour.






• To Show a Result or Effect



The subordinators are: so + adjective + that , so + adjective + that.

Examples:

She was so tired that she went to bed at 8 o'clock.

He was such a good instructor that she told all her friends about him.







• To Show a Time Relationship

The subordinators are: before, after, when, whenever, while, as soon as, until, the moment that, and since.

Examples:

She was listening to the test instructions when her cell phone rang.

She has studied the piano since she was a child.




• To Show a Condition

The subordinators are: if, even if, unless, when, whenever.

Examples:

We'll have our final class party at Queen's Park unless it rains.

If it rains, we'll meet at my place, which is close to the college.

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Connectors : Usage and Meaning

Types of Connectors




Connectors show the relationship between the ideas in two clauses. There are 3 kinds of connectors that we use to join clauses in sentences. They are coordinators , subordinators , and transitions .




Coordinators are used to join two independent clauses. The coordinators are and, for, so, but, yet, or and nor . Usually a comma is put before the coordinator.


Examples:




The office is closed for the next two days, but you can still phone to leave a message.




I forgot my computer disc, so I will have to hand in my assignment late.









Subordinators join a dependent clause to an independent clause. Examples of subordinators are before, when, if, because and although . They are used before the dependent clause. They can be used in two positions:







1) The subordinator and dependent clause can come before the independent clause with a comma.




When the bell rang, the students ran to the sky-train station .




2) The subordinator and dependent clause can come after the independent clause with no comma.


The students ran to the sky-train station when the bell rang.







Transitions are used between two independent clauses. Examples of transitions are however, besides, nevertheless and furthermore . After the first clause, use a semi-colon, then the transition, then a comma, and then the second clause.




Examples:




The students laughed; however, the instructor was not trying to be funny .




May U. Phail decided to take classes during the summer. She wanted to enjoy the city in summer ; besides, she didn't have enough money to go on a trip.







Meanings for Connectors




Connectors express many different relationships between ideas. This section describes different purposes for connectors. It also lists words that show each relationship and gives examples of some of those words in use. These are the purposes for the various connectors:




• To Add Another Idea
• To Restate, Explain or Emphasize an Idea
• To Give an Example
• To Show a Choice
• To Show a Difference
• To Show the Opposite of What You Might Expect
• To Show a Similarity
• To Show a Cause or Reason
• To Show a Result or Effect
• To Show a Time Relationship
• To Show a Condition







To Show a Difference














Coordinators	Subordinators	Transitions
but	while whereas though	in contrast on the contrary on the other hand instead however still otherwise




Examples:


He thinks 8:00 AM is an unreasonable time for class , but she thinks it's fine.




While most students hate lab assignments, Anita Newface enjoys them.




Professor Witty's classes are interesting and challenging; in contrast, Professor Standoffish's classes are dull and boring.




To Show the Opposite of What You Might Expect













Coordinators	Subordinators	Transitions
yet	although though even though	nevertheless admittedly even so nonetheless







Examples:




Jesse Minnitt knows he should start on his assignment, yet he's still watching TV.




Even though Clara Nett works hard, she still isn't getting good grades.




Nick L. Beer knows he needs more sleep; nevertheless, he stays up late every night playing computer games.




To Show a Similarity












Coordinators	Subordinators		Transitions
just as as		similarly likewise in the same way




(fungsi di coordinator itu fungsinya subordinator)







Examples:




Peter loves political science just as Rhonda loves English Literature.




Mae B. Knot has a great sense of humour; in the same way, her sister Dee Leerious loves a good joke.







To Show a Cause or Reason













Coordinators	Subordinators		Transitions
for		because since as now that as long as







Examples:




They college cancelled all the classes on Friday, for the weather was bad.




She decided to take Psychology because she was curious about human behaviour




To Show a Result or Effect













Coordinators	Subordinators	Transitions
so	so + adjective + that such + …noun + that	as a result consequently as a consequence therefore thus hence accordingly







Examples:




He made a lot of mistakes, so he had to do the assignment again.




She was so tired that she went to bed at 8 o'clock.




He was such a good instructor that she told all her friends about him




The drunk student made a lot of noise in the library; as a consequence, the librarians called the security guards to come and help them







To Show a Time Relationship

















Coordinators	Subordinators		Transitions
before after when whenever while as soon as until as since the moment that once		previously subsequently finally afterward meanwhile first, second, etc. after that next since then then, at first,




(ini fungsi sub, yang coordinatornya gak ada)







Examples:




She was listening to the test instructions when her cell phone rang.




She has studied the piano since she was a child.




The librarians called security; subsequently, the security guards took the drunk tudent outside of the campus building







To Show a Condition













Coordinators	Subordinators		Transitions
Or		if even if unless when whenever




(fungsi transition ga ada)




Examples:




We need to go now, or we will be late for the final exam.




We'll have our final class party at Queen's Park unless it rains.




If it rains, we'll meet at my place, which is close to the college .




Arranged by Enita Rahayu Uin Suska'08 / PBI / II F

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If Conditional Sentence

Learn About Conditional Sentence

There are 3 kinds of conditional sentence

• True in the Present / Future Time

• Untrue in the Present / Future Time

• Untrue in the Past Time




1. True in The Present / Future Time




Form





if + Simple Present, will-Future

Example: If I find her address, I will send her an invitation .

The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.

Example: I will send her an invitation if I find her address .

The function is to show / explain plan, advice, and possibility / probability

For example

• If you don't have breakfast, you will be hungry.

• If the magazine is on my table, you can take it.

• If you come early you will not get punish from our headmaster.





Use

Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is likely to happen.

Example: If I find her address, I'll send her an invitation.

I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure, however, that I will find it.

Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.

I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.








2. Untrue in the Present / Future Time





Form





if + Simple Past, main clause with Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation .

The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.

Example: I would send her an invitation if I found her address .





Were instead of Was

In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use ‚were‘ – even if the pronoun is I , he , she or it –.

Example: If I were you, I would not do this .

The function of conditional sentence type two is to explain our imagination.

For Example

• If the price of gasoline were only Rp. 1000 I would be very happy.

• What would you do if you found $100.00 on the street.

• If I had a lot of money, I wouldn't stay here.





Use

Conditional Sentences Type II refer to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine „what would happen if …“

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation .

I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her address.

Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari .

I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future.








3. Untrue In the Past Time





Form





if + Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation .

The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.

Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address .





Use

Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the past. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled.

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation .

Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation.

Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari .

I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one.

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